Traditional Medicine by Regions - Europe

"Let your medicine be something of the nature of the sign ascending" Nicholas Culpeper, English herbalist, Physician (1616-1654)

European traditional medicine practice has been known to be shaped by the influences from ancient Greeks and Romans. Roman physician Galen was an influential physician, who treated battle-inflicted wounds of the gladiators who have fought in the Coliseum (in city of Rome). Dioscorides (40-90 AD), a Greek physician, compiled and described over 600 herbs in his De Materia Medica. The writing was the first and most significant European herbal book. Its influence was prominent during the Renaissance period and also became an important foundation of some of the subsequent modern pharmacopoeias Another famous book on herbal medicines was the 'The English Physician: Or An Astrology Physical Discourse of The Vulgar
Herbs of This Nation', published by the renowned English herbalist and physician named Nicholas Culpeper in 1652.

The origin of some of today's alternative and complementary therapies can be traced back in this region. Samuel Thomson, a physician in the 19th century popularized herbalism in 1822, using plants for treating diseases. Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843), named as the Father of Homeopathy, founded the branch of practice called 'Homeopathy'. Homeopathy incorporates plants (besides animal-derived substances and chemicals) that are diluted mixtures of water or alcohol (O'Mathuna, 2007). The principal (Laws of Similars) behind homeopathy is that disease can be treated by the same substance that was responsible for the disease itself, (provided it is in its diluted form).

Propagated by Paracelsus (1443-1541), an influential in the 16-17th century period in Europe, The Doctrine of Signatures were once relied upon for identifying a particular plant's medicinal properties (Thomson, 1978). It even had its role in the naming of many herbs' common name such as horsetail and crowfoot. Eventually, these philosophies were not well received as time (and science) progresses due to more scientific explanation methods available.

Saffron (Crocus sativus) was once revered for its medicinal properties and was widely used in European culinaries. On the other hand, known for its detoxyfing effect of the liver and its anti-cancer action against prostate cancer (Paula et. al. 2005),

milk thistle (Silybum marianum) is one of the widely consumed herb in Europe and has long been used during the medieval times. It was once prescribed by Nicholas
Culpeper to treat jaundice and to stimulate bile production. Deemed as a sacred herb,

the Romans revered sage (Salvia officinalis). They used sage for wound healing and as a cough treatment. Latest research has shown the sage essential oil may hold the key to treating Alzheimer's disease.

Germany's herbal industry has been given a boost through the Imperial Decree of 1901. With that, herbal medicines were cleared off to be sold as drugs. In 1978, the German government (West Germany back then), in their effort to 'stamp' recognition on herbal medicines, had set up a committee (known as the German Commission E) to evaluate herbal products of their efficacies and safetiness. Subsequently, 315 herbs were evaluated by 1998 (Palo, 1998). A series of published monographs on medicinal evaluations of herbs had served as the tools of recognition for herbal
medicine industry in Germany, as well as Europe.

Herbal practice in the United Kingdom (U.K.) gained recognition by the setting up of National Institute of Medical Herbalist in 1864 (Foster and Johnson, 2006). In fact, it is the oldest medical institute for herbalists in the Western World. At one time, herbalism faced a 'bleak' moment as plant-derived medicines were banned in lieu with the Pharmacy Act. The ban was 'plugged off ' in 1968 when the Medicine Act was then approved and enforced (Foster and Johnson, 2006). Such were the trials and tribulations of herbs in U.K.

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Traditional Medicine by Regions - South America

Mention South America, images of football stars like Pele and Maradona would be the likely first to come to mind. Or maybe the enormous snake Anaconda. To dance fanatics, an experience of dancing to the steps of tango is a must when visiting Argentina. Going back into time, this region was flourishing with ancient civilizations like the Aztec and Mayan. South America is where the 'Queen of Scented Essence' and the 'Food of Gods' originated from. Indeed, this is the land that gave birth to
vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) and cocoa (Theobroma cacao), respectively.








Moreover, South America is the heart of the world's largest 'Green Lung', which is none other than the Amazon rainforest.

Amazon is home to various kinds of vegetationaI formations. Here, you can find many kinds of forest ranging from deciduous forest, savannas, seasonal and flooded forests. The Amazon Basin has tremendous biodiversity, thanks to the mosaic of biome existing in the region.

This world's greatest remaining natural resource hosts a variety of flora and fauna, and the lifeline of the forest, the Amazon River. It irrigates and drains the Amazonian basin. It is believed that the basin, which existed since the Paleozoic period, has immense biodiversity due to its extreme age in geologic terms.

The use of herbal plants as medicinal remedies is not new to the South Americans. The region's traditional healing practice is shrouded with a mystic fog of Shamanism. Shamanistic rituals are a norm with the locals, where greatly revered witch doctors would conjure up potions in the healing process by using different parts of medicinal plants.

Quinine, which was used to treat malaria, and potato,which can be made into poultice to treat skin diseases were among a wide array of herbal medicines employed by the locals to combat diseases and health problems. Besides, Shamans also employ the use of hallucinogenic plants in their rituals as they communicate with the spiritual world.

The European influence also found its way into South America, as evidently seen in some areas where the locals use concoctions of Spanish and local remedies. As more and more scientists delve into the myth of the native's healing rituals, the idea of using South America herbal remedies is slowly instilled into conventional medicinal practice.

Famous herb like Cat's claw or una de gato in Spanish language (referring to the two species,





namely Uncaria tomentosa and Uncaria guianensis) has been traditionally used in folklore medicinal practice ranging from Peru, Colombia, Guiana to other parts of the South America continent. Cat's claw's are used for treating digestive ailments, dysentery, gastric ulcers to arthritis (Eskin 2006, and Foster and Tyler 1999). Upon researching, scientist found out that cat's claw's anti-inflammatory and immuno-stimulant properties are due to the chemical constituents called pentacyclic and oxindole alkaloids.

Besides, South American's traditional medicine has been using Jatoba (Hymenaea courbaril) for treating fungal growth, particularly Athlete's foot due to Candida albicans. The indigenous people use its bark as a decoction for the similar purpose. Besides the bark, its leaves and resin also are used for various ranges of ailments. The reason behind the medicinal effects is its anti-fungal and anti-microbial properties derived from the plant's chemical constituents, namely terpenes and phenolics. Other traditional uses comprise treatments of chronic fatigue, memory
performance, coughing and bronchitis.

With 438,000 species of plants have been identified thus far and with many more still waiting to be discovered, Amazon rainforest may hold to many more undiscovered medicinal plant species of great value.

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Traditional Medicine by Regions - Australasia

The Eucalyptus tree is almost synonymous Australia itself. With around 600 species of the genus Eucalyptus, it is the one of the two dominant tree plants (other being Acacia spp.).




Also known as blue gum, the species Eucalyptus globulus is the probably the most well-known species among the Eucalyptus species. Eucalyptus trees are prized for their oil, whereby they are used to treat ailments such as diarrhoea, lung congestions and headaches.


What does the brands Thursday's Plantation and Blackmore's have in common? Well, definitely they are the well known tea tree oil-based facial products. Mainly, the essential oils are derived from species of the two genera; Leptospermum and Melaleuca of the Myrtle family.







There are 83 (out of the total 86 Leptospermum tea trees) have been described in Australia alone. The chief species of the two genera are Melaleuca alternifolia and Leptospermum scoparium (manuka).








The Australian tea tree, particularly of the species Melaleuca alternifolia is renowned for its antiseptic, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. Tea tree oil-based products are so ubiquitous, ranging from acne medications, essential oils for aromatherapy,antiseptic mouth-washes, bath creams/gels to toothpastes.

In a broader perspective, their herbal medicinal practice can be categorized into indigenous practice (Aborigines) and Western practice (European settlers). Australian bushmens and New Zealand's Maoris for example, have been using herbs in treating health conditions as well as in religious rituals. They mainly use herbs externally in the from of poultice, paste and in steam baths.

In 1992, Australia made an effort to boost R&D on medicinal plants by setting up Asian-Australian Centre for the Study of Bioactive Medicinal Plant Constituents at La Trobe University. This institute collaborated research efforts with experts from Thailand, New Zealand, Bangladesh, Kuwait, Indonesia and Singapore. This effort definitely signified the importance of the country's traditional medicine and herbal medicine industry as whole. Recognition of the native's use of medicinal plants can no longer be ignored as they may hold the key to many potential cures for modern diseases.

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Traditional Medicine by Regions - Indian Subcontinent

A country steep in ancient culture, where Aryan Kings once reigned over its fertile land. Herbal writings inscribed in Rig Veda literature, Ayurveda - healthcare of a different time, still precious to man.

Neem leaves are praised for its detoxifying power,

while tumeric and cumin make a tasty curry. Plentiful of herbs with a myriad of uses to discover, Making bright; the future of India's herbal industry.

The land of Indian sub-continent once saw a great ancient civilization flourished in the Indus valley, called Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. This is the land that has introduced us to famous culinary spices such as turmeric, star anise, curry leaves,

cardamom and cumin.

Not only does it gives us irresistible curry dishes but also these spices (herbs) are rich in medicinal properties. They are used for maintaining
health and, treating diseases and ailments. A land where approximately 9000 plant species are found existed (Bown, 2001). In fact, over 600 indigenous herbs have been employed in Ayurveda. With that in mind, herbs play major roles in the people of the region. In fact, herbs are used in their health care system called Ayurveda.

Ayurveda is the oldest medical practice that existed before Traditional Chinese Medicine (Foster and Johnson, 2006). It has been long practised in countries of the Indian sub-continent, namely India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Tibet. In Sanskrit term, Ayurveda means knowledge of life (Ayur: Life or longevity, Veda: Knowledge or science). So, what do herbs have got to do with Ayurveda?

Herbs are used as part of Ayurveda treatment, besides its corresponding therapies like steam therapy, oil massage, panchakarma and yoga. Its incorporation of herbs had even been documented in the ancient Sanskrit Vedic literatures; Rig Veda and Atharva Veda (Gordon and Clark,1999). This shows how prized herbs were in those days for treating ailments and maintaining health. In fact, the first Ayurveda school was built in circa 400 B.C. to educate and train Ayurveda physicians using herbs.

Unlike conventional medicine that usually treats the symptoms of a disease, Ayurveda seeks to prevent diseases from happening at the first place. It emphasizes on maintaining the harmony between the body, mind and soul. An imbalance in these aspects results in ailments and diseases. Ayurveda stresses upon the value maintaining the 'life force' called prana. Additionally, the 3 humours (physiological energy that regulates the body) called Tridosha (Vatta, Pitta, Kappa) must be in equilibrium in the state of harmony. An imbalance of these elements will result in health complications and affects the body's overall well-being. Thus, only specific herbs are prescribed based on their effects on an individual dosha.

Did you know that Traditional Chinese Medicine has its connection traced back to Ayurveda? This could be explained by the fact that Ayurveda in the region was absorbed into the Chinese practice through the spread of Buddhism (which originated from India) in Tibet and eventually China.

Ayurvedic practice saw its downturn when India was colonized by the British, beginning 1750. The British occupation period saw the practice being effectively banned in 1833, as it was deemed to be superstitious (Chevallier, 2000). Only after the British rule was over and through India's independence that air of new revival was breathed into Ayurveda.

Now, Ayurveda is recognized as one of the mainstream of the world's Traditional and Complementary Medicine, which even is recognized by the World Health Organisation. In fact, the Western world has already begun to embrace Ayurveda and its use of herbs as part of their alternative medicine, in complement with their western medicine (allopathy).

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Traditional Medicine by Regions - South East Asia

The land of historical monuments like Borobudur and Angkor Wat. A rich region that saw the trading of priceless spices between the Spice Islands (Moluccas Islands) and the Western world. This is one region that is blessed with rich biodiversity. Over 35, 000 plant species have been recorded; with over 6500 plant species are of medicinal values. Definitely, this region's rainforest holds the key to many undiscovered plants that are of potential benefits.

Borneo island (comprising Malaysian states of Sarawak and Sabah, Brunei and Kalimantan of Indonesia) alone owns 16,000 plant species (Plo, 2005) and 6000 endemic plant species. Southeast Asia region was once the hot spot for spice trading. This was due to the fact that it is blessed with many valuable spices such as clove (Syzygium aromaticum), turmeric (Curcuma longa) as well as nutmeg (Myristica fragrans).

In Indonesia, 'Jamu' still remains the form of traditional medicinal practice used by many Indonesians and have also been adopted by Malaysians (Mulliken 1999). A common practice of herbal medicines by Malays in both countries, Jamu could be traced back to its roots during ancient Javanese kingdoms. Archaeologists found engravings of particular medicinal leaf usages (called kalpataruh leaves) on Borobudur temple (circa 800-900 AD). Moreover, several book volumes detailing medicinal treatments of ancient Javanese kingdom were written in the book Serat Centhini (Book of Centhini) by 18th century.

With some 1863 medicinal plants, Vietnamese people have long use plants to treat various tropical diseases, including malaria. One of the plant svalued for its anti-malaria properties is Dichroa febrifuga (Bown, 2001).

As a mean to record down Vietnam's known traditional medicinal plants that has been used for thousands of years, its first pharmacopoeia (Thuóc Nam) was published. In Myanmar, traditional medicine gained high status when the government included traditional medicinal practice in its health care system in 1972.

Found ubiquitously in Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia, Sembong or Ngai Camphor in English (Blumea balsamifera) provides the cheapest camphor extract around,

besides Cinnamomum camphora and Dryobalanops aromatica (Donkin, 1999). Its leaves have been used traditionally by Malays for treatments such as reducing heatiness, heart inflammation and fever (Werner, 2002). Current studies have shown its capability of B. balsamifera's in reducing gall bladder cholesterol and acting as bile acid/lecithin production stimulant (Pizzorno et. al., 2002 and Goh et. al., 1995).

In Malaysia, well known herbs such as Misai kucing (Orthosiphon
stamineus), Tongkat ali (Eurycoma longifolia), Kacip fatimah (Labisia pumila),

Pegaga (Centella asiatica) and Mas cotek (Ficus deltoidea)

are now being intensively researched for their medicinal properties by governmental research bodies such as Malaysian Argriculture Research Institute (MARDI) and Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM). With a potential growth of RM12 billion annually, Malaysian herbal market has the potential to grow (in the sense of taking advantage of its own rich plant diversity and valuable medicinal plants). What more, herbal industry is estimated (by the World Bank) to be worth RM18.4 trillion by 2050
(Peterson. 2006). Also, it was reported that pegaga extract is worth $1000 kg-1 (Prathaban, 2006). Imagine the lucrative potentials waiting.

It is important to note that many valuable plants of Southeast Asia's tropical forest are facing the wrath of deforestation and over-harvesting in the wild. Thus, they are prone to extinction. In a concerted effort taken by World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), TRAFFIC Southeast Asia
conducted a study on wild medicinal plants of Indonesia and Malaysia. This was to ensure the sustainability of wild medicinal plant species in light of over-harvesting and trading. Completed in 1999, the study served to provide information the conservation of medicinal plant.

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Traditional Medicine by Regions - North America

Native American Indians have long inhabited the region of North America. The American Indians in particular, have many tribes such as the Cherokee, Mohawk, Pawnee, Menominee, Wampanoag, Postawatomi, Alabaman and Creek. These are the people whose possess the first-hand knowledge on some of America's prized medicinal plants like the American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) and Juniper (Juniperus communis).











In the book 'Native American Ethnobotany' written by Daniel E. Moerman (1988), a total of 2874 medicinal plants have been used by the natives. In addition, 18,000 medicinal uses of herbs have been described so far.

Besides for medicinal purposes, the natives incorporate herbs in their religious ceremonies and other spiritual practices. They believe that illnesses are caused by bad spirits, which had invaded the body and mind of a person. Thus, rituals like dancing, chanting and playing musical instruments, in addition to the use of medicinal plants are performed. This shamanistic rituals performed by a medicine man (shaman), who will also use herbs to aid the healing ritual.

The 'Doctrine of Signatures' is usually the main method of recognising a herb's medicinal uses based on its resemblance of shape, colour and odour. For an example, the American ginseng has a close physical resemblance to the human male sex organ, thus deemed as an aphrodisiac for men (Chichoke, 2001). Various tribes have used the roots for treating stomach ache, as a tonic and as a booster for mental strength. Additionally, it has been used by the Cherokees to treat muscle spasms.


Besides American ginseng, other popular herbs prized for their medicinal values are Lady's Slipper (Cypripedium spp.), Yarrow (Achillea Millefolium), Kav kava
(Piper methysticum)






Sassafras (Sassafras albidum) and Black Cohosh (Actaea racemosa).







Used by the Cherokees for deafness and as a laxative, Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) has now been recognized to be effective against venereal warts and possess anticancer properties (Thomson, 1978).

Unlike other regions such as India and China, the American Indians' knowledge of herbal remedies has been largely communicated verbally without being recorded in texts. Thus, many great medicinal values of the herbs had disappeared, only to be recorded and studied upon the subsequent European settlers' presence.

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Traditional Medicine by Regions - Africa

Africa, encompassing several climatic zones on either side of the equatorial belt, has climates which range from sub-arctic to the tropics. Hence, the region is blessed with vast botanical diversity. Medicinal plants emerge as one of the major 'constituents' and Traditional medicine has been the answer to African health care for many centuries.

In the past, Africans held fast to their superstitious beliefs, and regarded outbreaks of diseases as punishments from gods and ancestors. Sorcery and witchcraft were also practiced, for many Africans attribute illnesses to the act of dark magic. Often times, the people would seek the service of Shaman (a medium as well as healer) who could communicate with spirits and ghosts. It was a deep-rooted fact that Shamans are the 'special ones' who are bestowed with an ability to chase away evil spirits. He clears the doubts for his congregation who are troubled by dreams, and provides comfort and a sense of serenity for tribe members who are deep in grieving.

Traditional remedies also come into play, for Shamans would often employ the use of these medicinal plants to heal patients, or to mollify angered ancestors. When a patient succumbs to the illness, it is believed that the said patient has angered the evil spirit, or hit by a deadly curse.

The existence of Ebers papyrus confirmed the use of medicinal plants in Africa in ancient times. Ebers papyrus, produced circa 1500 B.C. is one of the oldest medical manuscripts in the world, recorded the data of approximately 700 medicinal plants. The voluminous Egyptian medicinal record was the prelude to the flourishing of classical medical practices in Ancient Greece, Rome, and the Arabic World. The use of medicinal plants was further established when herbal medicines were freely traded between India, Middle East and North-eastern Africa over a large time span. At the same time, Arabian countries became the leaders in the medical scene, and Arabic influence was henceforth, exerted upon the African society.

One of the most recognized medicinal plant in Africa is Devil's claw (Harpagophytum procumbens) has been traditionally used for treating arthritis, digestive complaints and fever.

Another great herb to come out from this continent is the Madagascar periwinkle (Cataranthus roseus), a native of the Madagascar island (on the South East of Africa). Africans have used it as part of their traditional remedies for treating poor digestive system, diabetes, rheumatic pains and hypertension. Though its claim of treating diabetes have yet to be proven clinically, another medicinal property has been proven, which is anti-cancer.

Alkaloids (mainly vincristine and vinblastine) from the plant have been shown to possess anti-cancer properties and are made into anti-cancer drugs.

Not to be left out is Kola nut (Cola acuminata). Africans chew on
its dried seeds for its stimulating effect of the digestive system. It is
taken as tonic and as aphrodisiac. Currently, it is used extensively as part of the medications for depression, alertness, migraine and headache.

To this day, although conventional Western medicine is well recognized as the pragmatic solution to many health problems, traditional herbal remedies remain as the primary source for health care, especially in the rural areas of Africa.

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